Essay on Psychopathology and Abnormal Psychology Essay Example for Free

Essay on Psychopathology and Abnormal Psychology Essay One of the most controversial aspects of society throughout history can be seen in the way society views people with illnesses. Often times, people persecute their fellowmen just because they do not seem â€Å"normal† or they seem to â€Å"not belong† with the current society. These problems have led to the development of a branch of psychology which aimed to look at the causes and other related information that formed these mental illnesses. This branch of psychology came to be known as abnormal psychology. Abnormal psychology is that segment of the field which studies mental illnesses and abnormal behavior. The field covers problems such as depression, obsession, and even sexual deviation. The field also traced the symptoms, etiology, effects, and how these illnesses are maintained. Before we study abnormal psychology though, we must first look into what people see as abnormal. Historically, many of the earliest civilizations attribute mental disorders and illnesses as manifestations of evil spirits; some even have practices which remove parts of the skull using primitive tools as a means of releasing these evil spirits. As time progressed though, people such as priests, shamans, and witch doctors have been employed to supposedly rid these individuals of the â€Å"malicious† spirits which inhabit their bodies. During the times of the Greeks and the Romans, diagnosing and identifying mental illnesses have become more scientific. However, during this period, mystical and supernatural explanations still prevail over the ideas of modern science. One example is Homer, according to him, mental illnesses are caused by God, taking away the minds of the victims. It is not until Hippocrates wrote numerous accounts, journals, essays, papers and other scholarly work that made the study more scientific. In his papers, Hippocrates wrote about things such as psychosis, mania, phobias, and paranoia. His theory, however, still is flawed because he attributed the illnesses to four fluids in the human body: black and yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. During the middle ages, more horrifying and disturbing accounts were given, According to studies, during this period, people with mental illnesses were classified as witches, and they were â€Å"hunted† so as to rid them of the physical world. It was further justified by the writing of the Malleus Malifacarum (Withc’s Hammer) in 1486. In 1563, a person by the name of Jahann Weyer wrote a book called De Praestigiis Daemonum (The Deception of Demons). The book discredited the beliefs that demons were the culprits in mental illnesses and instead brought out the point that natural causes may indeed result in abnormal behavior. He also looked at the possibility of the use of drugs as sparks which caused these said disorders. With his work, the study of mental abnormalities became more humanitarian and started to look for treatment, rather than damnation, for its victims. In 1769, Benjamin Rush, a professors of chemistry and medicine at the college of Philadelphia became the father of American psychiatry. He instituted reform by putting into action several changes such as better ventilation, separation and classification of violent and non-violent patients, and created programs for recreation catering to the patients who suffer from mental illness. By 1880, Dorthea Dix, a schoolteacher from Boston started a campaign which led to the opening of 32 psychiatric hospitals which prioritized the poor and the needy. Several other prominent people paved the way for the contemporary notion of psychopathology. Emil Kraeplin was the one who introduced to society different classifications of mental disorders. This led the way to a closer relationship between medicine and psychiatry. The classification focused on two important groups – the praecox or what is no known as the schizophrenics, and the manic-depressive psychopaths. He believed that these illnesses were caused by chemical imbalance and irregularities in other aspects of the person such as one’s metabolism. Another important person which helped develop the field of study was Clifford Beers. Beers himself suffered a mental breakdown but was able to overcome it. Upon his recovery, he wrote a book which he titled A Mind That Found Itself. Beers and his book were responsible for the foundation of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, a branch of government which worked to prevent illnesses as well as make sure that any treatment conducted is classified as humane. Today, abnormal psychology focuses on the 4 D’s, these are distress, dysfunction, deviance, and danger. One should note though, that these 4 d’s are seen as judgments, not objective behavior. First of all is dysfunction. Dysfunction is defined as a difficult or abnormal function. In psychology, one of the most popular diseases caused by a dysfunction of the brain is schizophrenia. This disorder is caused by enlarged ventricles, reduced blood flow to the frontal lobe, and an excess of dopamine. Schizophrenia is a chronic disorder that is characterized by people who talk to themselves, yell at someone else which seem imaginary, and other symptoms. Another aspect of the psychopathology is distress. Distress in psychology can lead to numerous diseases, most popular of which are anorexia and bulimia. Often times, people who develop these conditions see it as a way of coping with negative emotions or painful feelings. Traumatic events in a person’s life may also trigger disorders in eating. Danger results in one of the most overlooked psychological disorder in an individual. Often times, notions of fear will develop into anxiety. Anxiety, unlike normal fear, can be characterized by four inherent characteristics. First of all, it is defined by a specific target; secondly, anxiety is experienced in response to the target of fear; third, the target feared by the individual is avoided; and finally anxiety tends to be more chronic. One of the most interesting in the 4 d’s is deviance. We might see something as deviant behavior, but we do not know is that this deviant behavior for us is the deviant’s â€Å"normal† function. This is why this is the most blurred classification out of all of the things that we characterize as abnormal. From here, there are three important viewpoints which look at mental disorders and their causes. These three models are the biological, psychosocial, and the socio-cultural models. First of all, the biological model looks at the brain as the cause of the abnormal behavior. According to proponents of this model, mental disorders are caused by the different chemical imbalances in the brain, and as such, leads to the difference in a person’s behavior. The socio-cultural approach looks at the role that society plays with regards to human behavior. According to its proponents, society and culture play a major role in determining if an individual will be labeled as â€Å"mentally ill† or has a mental disorder. Often times, this is where social deviance is seen; this is due to the idea that one is deviant for a culture may be the norms of the other. Finally, the psychosocial approach looks at underlying influences which are often times unconscious. This approach looks at the childhood and past experiences of the victim. Proponents of this approach are Sigmund Freud and Josef Brener. The approach theorizes that the disorder occurs when the individual becomes â€Å"fixated† to the stage wherein the negative experience has occurred. Looking at these evolutions in the field of abnormal psychology, it becomes positive enough that the approach, which was more of spiritual during earlier times, transforms itself into a more rational field of study. More importantly, these approaches lead us not to discriminate people with these disorders, but rather try to understand them and help them get better. Bibliography Abnormal Psychology. Blackwell Publishing. Retrieved April 10, 2009 from http://www. blackwellpublishing. com/intropsych/pdf/chapter15. pdf What is Abnormal Psychology? About. com. Retrieved April 10, 2009 from http://psychology. about. com/od/glossaryfromatoz/g/abnormalpsyc. htm Harris, Kevin. History of Abnormal Psychology. History of Psychology. Retrieved April 10, 2009 from http://www3. niu. edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/mainsheet. htm Bickard, Mark. The Nature of Psychopathology. Retrieved April 10, 2009 from http://www. lehigh. edu/~mhb0/psychopath. html

No Prayer in Public Schools Essay -- Religion in Public Schools

No Prayer in Public Schools Chapter three of Civil Liberties: Opposing Viewpoints inspired me to research today’s issues of school prayer. To understand how we got to where we are today, I first delved into our countries history of court cases pertaining to rulings on prayer in schools. Lastly, to update my audience on how our lives are being affected today, I directed my efforts toward finding current situations. By analyzing these situations, I gained knowledge for a better understanding of why society needs to be aware of these controversies. I don’t think there should be any form of organized prayer in today’s public schools. Praying in school was first addressed in the Supreme Court in 1962 in the Engle v. Vitale case. The Establishment Clause emerged and stated Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion. The court ruled the Union Free School District in Hyde Park, NY had violated the First Amendment by directing the principals to cause the following prayer to be said aloud by each class in the presence of a teacher at the beginning of each school day: â€Å"Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country† (Longley, "Public"). I agree with the courts ruling because not all students in a classroom share the same beliefs. To cause everyone to say this prayer surely violates their rights. Two other court cases were influential in addressing prayer. In the 1971 Lemon v. Kurtzman case the Supreme Court composed a list of guidelines, known as the Lemon Test, to prove a practice unconstitutional. It states the court will rule a practice unconstitutional if: 1. It lacks any secular purpose. 2. The practice either promote... ...endment on School Prayer or Moment of Silence."   Library n.d.   28 Oct. 2001 . * * Lesk, Emily. â€Å"My Turn: My 60-Second Protest From the Hallway.† Newsweek 11 June 2001: 12-13. * * Longley, Robert.   "Chruch and State: How the Court Decides."   U.S. Gov Info/Resources n.d.   12 Nov. 2001 . * * Longley, Robert.   "Public Schools Don't Have a Prayer."   U.S. Gov Info/Resources n.d.   15 Nov. 2001 . * * McCuen, Gary E.   Religion and Politics: Issues in Religious Liberty.   Hudson: G.E. McCuen Publications, 1989. * * Roleff, Tamara L.   Civil Liberties Opposing Viewpoints.   San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1999. * * Swomley, John M.   Religion, The State and The Schools.   New York: Pegasus, 1968. *

The Hunters: Moonsong Chapter Twenty-Three

â€Å"I don't know how it got so late,† Elena said for the third time as they hurried down the path by the quad. â€Å"Bonnie and Meredith are probably worried about me.† â€Å"They know you're with me,† Damon said, pacing along unruffled beside her. â€Å"I don't think they'l find that comforting,† Elena said, and bit her tongue as Damon shot her an expressive look. â€Å"After al the time we've spent fighting side by side, they stil don't trust me?† he said silkily. â€Å"I'd be terribly hurt. If I cared what they thought.† â€Å"I don't mean that they think you'd hurt me,† Elena said. â€Å"Not anymore. Or that you wouldn't protect me. I guess they worry that you might †¦ might make a pass at me. Or something.† Damon stopped and looked at her. Then he picked up her hand and held it, running one finger down the inside of her arm, tracing the vein that led from Elena's wrist to her elbow. â€Å"And what do you think?† he asked, smiling gently. Elena snatched her hand back, glaring at him. â€Å"Clearly they have a point,† she said. â€Å"Knock it off. Just friends, remember?† Sighing deeply, Damon started walking again, and Elena hurried to catch up. â€Å"I'm glad you decided to come to the party with me,† she said eventual y. â€Å"It'l be fun.† Damon shot her a velvet-black glance through his lashes but said nothing. It was always fun to be with Damon, Elena thought, listening to the clicking of her own heels and watching her shadow grow and disappear as they walked beneath the streetlights. Or at least, it was always fun when Damon was in a good mood and nothing was trying to kil them, two circumstances she wished coincided more often. Stefan, sweet, darling Stefan, was the love of her life. She had no doubts about that. But Damon made her feel breathless and excited, swept up in something bigger than herself. Damon made her feel like she was special. And he was more easygoing than usual tonight. After Matt left, they'd searched the library some more, and then Damon treated her to chips and soda in the basement vending-machine room. They sat at one of the little tables and talked and laughed. It wasn't anything fancy or elegant, nothing like the parties he'd escorted her to in the Dark Dimension, but it was comfortable and fun, and when she looked at her phone, she was startled to see that more than an hour had passed. And now Damon even volunteered to come to a col ege keg party. Maybe he was trying to get along with her friends. Maybe they could real y be friends, once things somehow worked out between Stefan and him. Elena had reached this point in her musings when she suddenly got the unmistakable creepy-crawly feeling that she was being watched. The little hairs on the back of her neck stood up. â€Å"Damon,† she said softly. â€Å"There's someone watching us.† Damon's pupils dilated as he sniffed the air. Elena could tel that he was sending out questing tendrils of Power, searching for an answering surge, for someone focusing on them. â€Å"Nothing,† he said after a moment. He tucked his hand under her arm, pul ing her closer. â€Å"It could just be your imagination, princess, but we'l be careful.† The leather of Damon's jacket was smooth against Elena's side, and she held tightly to him as they stepped out into the road that divided the campus. Just across from them, a car that had been idling at the curb gunned its engine. Its headlights blazed on, blinding Elena. Damon's arms locked around her waist, squeezing the breath out of her. The car's tires squealed and it shot toward them. Elena panicked – oh God, oh God, she thought helplessly – and froze. Then she was sailing through the air, Damon holding her so tightly that it hurt. When they hit the grass on the other side of the road, Damon paused for a moment, adjusting his grip on Elena, and Elena peered back at the car, which had passed where they were standing a moment before and skidded back around in a U-turn. She couldn't make out anything, not what kind of car it was nor anything about the driver; behind the bright lights, it was just a hulking dark shape. A hulking dark shape that was veering onto the grass and coming back after them. Damon swore and yanked her onward, running rather than flying now, Elena's feet barely touching the ground. Her heart was pounding. She could tel Damon was hampered from using his ful speed by keeping Elena close. They dodged around the corner of a building and leaned against its wal , surrounded by bushes. The car hurtled by, then turned, its wheels leaving long skid marks, and lumbered back to the road. â€Å"We lost him,† Elena whispered, panting. â€Å"Annoy anyone lately, princess?† Damon asked, his eyes sharp. â€Å"I should be asking you that,† Elena retorted. Then she wrapped her arms around herself. She was so cold suddenly. â€Å"Do you think it could have been because of the Vitale Society?† she asked, her voice quavering. â€Å"Something about them and my parents?† â€Å"We don't know who or what could have been on the other side of that trapdoor,† Damon replied somberly. â€Å"Or maybe Matt†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Not Matt,† Elena said firmly. â€Å"Matt would never hurt me.† Damon nodded. â€Å"That's true. He's ridiculously honorable, your Matt.† He gave her a little wry sideways smile. â€Å"And he loves you. Everyone loves you, Elena.† He shrugged out of his jacket and draped it over her shoulders. â€Å"One thing's certain, though. If the driver of that car thought I was human before, he knows differently now.† Elena pul ed the jacket more tightly around herself. â€Å"You saved me,† she said in a tiny voice. â€Å"Thank you.† Damon's eyes were soft as he put his arms around her. â€Å"I wil always save you, Elena,† he promised. â€Å"Don't you know that by now?† His pupils dilated, and he pul ed her closer. â€Å"I can't lose you,† he murmured. Elena felt like she was fal ing. The world was being swal owed up in Damon's midnight eyes, and she was being drawn along with it, into the darkness. A tiny part of her said no, but despite it she leaned toward him and met his mouth with hers. Stefan tapped his fingers against the wal behind him, looked around at al the people jammed too close together: talking, laughing, arguing, drinking, dancing. His skin was crawling with anxiety. Where was she? Matt said he'd seen her at the library more than an hour ago, that she had been planning on coming to the party then. Making up his mind, Stefan began to push his way toward the exit. Maybe Elena didn't want him in contact with her right now, but people were dying and disappearing. It would be worth it to have her angry with him, as long as he knew that she was okay. He passed Meredith, deep in conversation with her friend, and said, â€Å"I'm going to find Elena.† He had the quick impression of her faltering, starting to reach out a hand to stop him, but he left her behind. He pushed open the door and stepped out into the cool night air. Campus security was stil by the door checking IDs, but they let him pass without comment, only interested in people trying to come into the party. Outside, the wind was rushing through the trees overhead and a crescent moon rode high and white above the buildings around him. Stefan sent his Power out around him, feeling for the distinct traces of Elena. He couldn't sense anything, not yet. There were too many people too close together here, and Stefan could only feel the tangled traces of thousands of humans, their emotions and life force mixing together in one great underlying buzz from which it was impossible for him, at this distance, to pick out any particular individual, even one as singular as Elena. If he had fed on human blood recently, it would have been easier. Stefan couldn't help thinking longingly of the way that Power had surged through him when he drank regularly from his friends. But that was when Fel ‘s Church needed his best defense against the kitsune. He wouldn't drink human blood just for pleasure or convenience. Stefan started walking quickly across the quad, stil sending out questing fingers of Power around and ahead of himself. If he couldn't locate Elena that way, he would head for where she was last seen. He hoped that, as he got closer to the library, his Power would pick up some hint of her. His whole body was thrumming anxiously. What if Elena had been attacked, what if she mysteriously vanished and never returned, leaving him with this strange distance as their last memory of each other? Stefan walked faster. He was halfway to the library when the distinctive sense of Elena hit him like a punch. Somewhere nearby. He scanned left and right and then he saw her. A terrible pain shot through his chest, as if he could actual y feel his heart breaking. She was kissing Damon. They were half hidden in the shadows, but their light skin and Elena's blond hair shone. They were focused only on each other, so much so that, despite his Power, Damon wasn't aware of Stefan's presence, not even when he walked right up to them. â€Å"Is this why you wanted to take some time apart, Elena?† Stefan asked, his voice sounding hol ow and distant. Final y noticing him, they broke away from each other, Elena's face pale with shock. â€Å"Stefan,† she said. â€Å"Please, Stefan, no, it's not what it looks like.† She reached out a hand toward him, then drew it back uncertainly. Everything seemed so far away to Stefan; he was aware that he was shaking, his mouth was dry, but it felt almost as if he was watching someone else in pain. â€Å"I can't do this,† he said. â€Å"Not again. If I fight for you, I'l just end up destroying us al . Just like with Katherine.† Elena was shaking her head back and forth, her hands stretched out toward him imploringly again. â€Å"Please, Stefan,† she said. â€Å"I can't,† Stefan said again, backing away, his voice thin and desperate. Then, for the first time, he looked at Damon, and a redhot rage slammed into him, overriding the numb distance instantly. â€Å"Al you do is take,† Stefan told him bitterly. â€Å"This is the last time. We're not brothers anymore.† Damon's face opened for a split second in dismay, his eyes widening, as if he was about to speak, and then he hardened again, his mouth twisting scornful y, and he jerked his head at Stefan. Very well, that gesture indicated, then get lost. Stefan stumbled backward, and then he turned and ran, moving with al the supernatural grace and speed at his command, leaving them far behind even as Elena screamed, â€Å"Stefan!†

How The Hollywood Writers And Filmmakers Present Other...

How the Hollywood writers and filmmakers present other ethnicities in its productions? The standard images of the diversity in America formed the offending stereotypes that other ethnic people wanted to break. The stereotypes of the other ethnicities easily can be found in the Hollywood films and shows that influenced the America. As John R. Terry stated in the Hollywood, Racial Depictions in, â€Å"The construction of these images follows a pattern in Hollywood of reproducing stereotypes, yet there are also independent filmmakers who have offered positive depictions of these groups† (333). The Hollywood writers and directors have a social responsibility to avoid stereotyping the ethnic characters on the topics of racial stereotypes, gendered†¦show more content†¦Also the films, which are originated from the Asia, have the whitewashed Asian characters by a white or Caucasian actor, who put on make-up as Asian character. The Ghost in the Shell (2017) is the Japanese or iginated film that casted a white actress Scarlett Johansson as main character and Dr. Strange (2016) casted the Caucasian actress Tilda Swinton as the Ancient one, who was born in Kamar-Taj, Himalayas. As the examples represent, the construction of these images follows a pattern of reproducing stereotypes in Hollywood, yet many independent filmmakers try to present the positive depictions of the stereotyped groups. Secondly, the ideas of the gendered racism used commonly in Hollywood, that have been growing the racism greatly in the community. The female characters usually depict the views of the weak, dependant, and overly feminine. Lisa M. Cuklanz quoted in the Mass Media Representation of Gendered Violence, â€Å"By treating female characters as object to be observed, handled, used, abused, and even discarded, mass media encourage us to think of women and girls as less than human† (32). The female objectification made men to think, that treating female violently, is two-s ided satisfaction in relationship. The movie Passenger (2016) is an example of gendered racism, because Aurora, who is sleeping in her pod, was awaken by Jim Preston for his sexual satisfaction and she was totally fine with itShow MoreRelatedPerpetuating Values Of Racism : As Seen On The Silver Screen1319 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal box office revenues hit an all time high of $38 billion US dollars in 2015 (Child). The Hollywood film industry is a highly lucrative business that seemingly offers something for everyone: romance, thriller, tragedy, fantasy, comedy, action, and so much more. However, the industry has an extensive history of favoring the white, straight male, which leaves minorities to feel wrongly represented. Hollywood films do integrate different races, but there remains to be one constant; the white race. 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